NAVAL TACTICS – Corsairs & Captives

The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were a time of violent conflict, both on land and at sea. They were also a time in which new military tactics were worked out. The driver for these new tactics was artillery.

At sea, this was the period when European nations developed “ships of the line,” so called because sea battles consisted of lines of such ships sailing towards each other and then blasting away with canons. This soon became the standard approach. Everybody adopted it, including the Barbary corsairs. In the early seventeenth century, they learned from European renegades how to build and sail European-style square-rigged ships, but they also leaned the naval tactics that made such ships effective in battle.

These sea battles between fleets didn’t simply consist of a bunch of opposing ships spraying each other with random cannon fire, though. Except in cases where one side greatly outgunned the other, the victors usually triumphed because they had been more tactically astute.

There was, in other words, a set of basic tactical principles that could be applied to naval battles. These principles had been gradually worked out through a trial-and-error process until they were coherent. After that, people began to write them down.

One such set of tactical principles appeared in a seventeenth century work titled Espejo de Navegantes (The Seamen’s Glass), by Alonso de Chaves.

Sometimes, there’s just no substitute for the original. So here it is. Below is a slightly abridged and edited version of de Chaves’ tactical advice to naval commanders (Captains General, as he calls them).

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When entering battle, the Captain General should always do his best to ensure that his fleet shall have the weather-gage; for in doing so he will always keep free from being blinded by the smoke of the guns, so as to be able to see one to another; and for the enemy it will be the contrary, because the smoke and fire of our fleet and of their own will keep driving upon them, and blinding them in such a manner that they will not be able to see one another, and they will fight among themselves from not being able to recognize each other.

Each of the squadrons ought to sail in line abreast, so that all can see the enemy and use their guns without getting in each other’s way, and they must not sail in file one behind the other, because thence would come great trouble, as only the leading ships could fight.

If the fleet of the enemy shall come on in one body in line abreast, ours should do the same, placing the largest and strongest ships in the center and the lightest on the flanks of the battle, seeing that those which are in the center always receive greater injury because necessarily they have to fight on both sides.

The Captain General should be stationed in the center squadron, so that he may see those which go before and those which follow. Having arrayed his whole fleet according as it seems best to him for giving battle, and everything being ready for battle, all shall bear in mind the signals he shall have appointed with flag or shot or topsail, that all may know at what time to attack or board or come to rescue or retreat or give chase. These signals all must be clearly understood, and everybody must remember what they are to do when such signals are made, and likewise the small armed boats shall take the same care and remember what they ought to do and so perform their proper duty.

Then the flagship shall bid a trumpet sound, and at that signal all shall move in their correct order. As they come into range, they should begin to play their most powerful artillery, taking care that the first shots do not miss, for when the first shots hit, inasmuch as they are the largest, they strike great dread and terror into the enemy. For seeing how great hurt they suffer, they think how much greater it will be at close range and so mayhap they will not want to fight, but strike and surrender or fly, so as not to come to close quarters.

Having so begun firing, they should always first play the largest guns, which are on the side or board towards the enemy, and likewise they shall move over from the other side those guns which have wheeled carriages to run on the upper part of the deck and poop. And then when nearer they should use the smaller ones, and by no means should they fire them at first, for afar off they will do no hurt, and the enemy will know there is a dearth of good artillery and will take better heart to make or abide an attack. After having come to closer quarters, they then ought to play the lighter artillery. And so soon as they come to board or grapple all the other kinds of arms shall be used: first, missiles such as harpoons and stones, then hand-guns and crossbows, then fire-balls, as well from the tops as from the castles, and at the same time the calthrops, linstocks, stink-balls, grenades, and the scorpions for the enemy’s sails and rigging.

At this moment, they should sound all the trumpets, and with a lusty cheer from every ship at once they should grapple and fight with every kind of weapon, those with staffed scythes or shear-hooks cutting the enemy’s rigging and the others with the fire instruments raining fire down on the enemy’s rigging and crew.

The Captain-General should encourage all in the battle, and because he cannot be heard with his voice he should bid the signal for action to be made with his trumpet or flag or with his topsail.

And he should keep a sharp lookout in every direction in readiness, so that when he sees any of his ships in danger, he can order the reserve ships to give succor, if by chance they have not seen it, or else himself to bear in with his own ship.

The flagship should take great care not to grapple with any other, for then the Captain-General could not see what is passing in the battle nor control it. And besides, his own side in coming to help and support him might find themselves out of action, and if any accident befell him, the rest of the fleet would be left without guidance and would not have care to succor one another, but so far as they were able would fly or take their own course. Accordingly the Captain-General should never be of the first to grapple nor should he enter into the press, but should rather watch the fighting and bring succor where it is most needed.

The support ships in like manner should have a care to keep somewhat apart and not to grapple till they see where they should first bring succor. The more they keep clear, the more will they have opportunity of either standing off and using their cannons, or of coming to close range with their other firearms. Moreover, if any ship of the enemy takes to flight, they will be able to give chase or get athwart her hawse, and will be able to watch and give succor wherever the Captain-General signals.

The small boats in like manner should not close in till they see the ships grappled, and then they should come up on the opposite side and carry out their special duties as occasion arises either with their harquebuses, or else by getting close in and wedging up the rudders, or cutting them and their gear away, or by leaping in upon the enemy, if they can climb in without being seen, or from outside by setting fire to them, or scuttling them with augers.

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De Chaves also adds the following important caveat:

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If the enemy takes the same thought and care as I, I answer that when both be equal in numbers and arms, then in such a case he who shall be more dexterous and have more spirit and fortitude will conquer, the which he will not do, although he have more and better arms and as much spirit as he will, if he be wanting in good order and counsel, just as happens in fencing, that the weaker man if he be more dexterous gives more and better hits than the other who does not understand the beats nor knows them, although he be the stronger. And the same holds good with any army whatsoever on land, for it has been seen that the smaller by their good order have defeated the stronger.

The above section of Espejo de Navegantes (The Seamen’s Glass), by Alonso de Chaves, is excerpted from Publications of the Navy Records Society Vol. XXIX, Fighting Instructions, 1530-1816 (published in 1905), edited by Julian S. Corbett, pp. 8 – 13.